Pulahan (Pulahanes)

Emerging in the late 19th century in the Visayas amid social distress under late Spanish colonial rule, the Pulahan movement coalesced as a syncretic revival combining indigenous babaylan practices and Folk Catholic elements and organized around charismatic 'dios-dios' leaders. Notable leaders and episodes associated with the broader dios-dios phenomenon and Pulahan milieu include Ponciano Elofre (known as Dios Buhawi), Papa Isio (who followed related rebel-shaman currents), and multiple local dios-dios claimants documented across the 19th century (examples of dios-dios activity are attested in 1811, 1862, 1865, 1887 in contemporary summaries). The Pulahanes became especially active during the Philippine Revolution era and into the early American colonial period; colonial-era sources and later summaries note the movement reached substantial numbers in the late 19th century and was subsequently suppressed by Guardia Civil, Philippine Constabulary patrols, arrests, and military action in the early 20th century.

The group name derives from Cebuano meaning 'those wearing red,' and adherents are consistently reported to have worn red clothing or identifying red articles. Martial presentation included training in indigenous fighting systems (Derobio Eskrima) and the use of a heavy, crescent-shaped bolo knife as a signature weapon. Ritual paraphernalia recorded in accounts include bottles of holy oil, prayer books (such as the Bible), and consecrated anting-anting (amulets). Some leaders emulated asog/babaylan practice by adopting feminine dress and mannerisms (for example, Ponciano Elofre, who styled himself Dios Buhawi). Sources do not provide further detailed anthropological description beyond clothing, weapons, and ritual items.

As a human, socio-religious movement, Pulahanes combined ritual claims and martial capability. Religiously, dios-dios leaders and ritual specialists in the movement claimed healing, prophecy, promises of prosperity, and other supernatural benefits to attract and retain followers; Pulahan ritual practice fused Christian sacramentals (holy oil, prayer books) with indigenous talismans (anting-anting) and revived babaylan rites. Militarily, Pulahanes were described in colonial sources as ferocious fighters skilled in hand-to-hand combat and indigenous eskrima techniques, employing war cries and engaging in armed attacks against colonial targets. Sources record colonial characterizations of followers as superstitious and note accusations of banditry alongside politically framed rebellion; the efficacy of ritual protections is presented in sources as part of believers' claims rather than independently verified supernatural invulnerability.